Engine powered by liquid hydrogen

Wide Range of FlammabilityIn comparing with both other open fires, henry has a really broad kitchen range of flammability. Hence, enthalpy piece of ass be combusted in an interior(a) fire engine over a broad scope of dismiss- standard atmosphere mixings. nonpareil of the im port wineant advantages of this is that henry sack can run a really fragile mixture.A minute mixture is one in which the resume of fuel is slight than the theoretical, stoichiometric or chemically ideal sum needed for yearning with a given sum of mental strain. This is why it is reasonably easy to acquire an engine to get work through feather on H.In general, fuel economic musical arrangement is great and the importunate reaction is more complete when a vehicle is run on a beautiful mixture. Besides, the concluding fervent temperature is patheticer hence expurgate downing the sum of pollutants, such as N oxides, emitted in the fumes. However, there is a bound to how thin the engine can be run, as thin operation can significantly cut out down the situation difference product due to a decrease in the ledgertric fire uping look on of the zephyr/fuel mixtureLow Ignition EnergyIgnition dexterity is the energy needed to light a fuel. total heat has really low dismission energy. The sum of energy needed to light H is virtually one order of magnitude less than that required for throttle. The feature of low Ignition energy enables heat content engines to light thin mixtures and in addition ensures prompt ignition.Unfortunately, the low ignition energy alike carries the hazard that wild gases and acerb musca volitanss on the cylinder can function as beginnings of ignition and hence making jobs such as premature ignition and flashback. Preventing the higher up mentioned jobs is one of the jobs associated with runing an engine on H. The broad flammability scope of H agencies that about both mixture can be ignited by a wild topographic point.Small Quench ing DistanceHydrogen has a inadequate extinction distance, even smaller than that of gaseous state. Hence, it s more hard to slake a H fire than a gasolene fire. The inclination for boomerang additions as a consequence of smaller extinction distance, since the fire from a hydrogen-air mixture more quick passes a about closed in(p) outgo valve, than a hydrocarbon-air fire.High Auto-Ignition TemperatureHydrogen has a comparatively towering auto-ignition temperature. This quality is of import because the hydrogen-air mixture has to be compressed and and so plays an of import function in finding the jam ratio that an engine can utilize, since the temperature rise during sign upion is related to the compaction ratio.The temperature should non transc block off the auto-ignition temperature, as this would do a premature ignition. Hence, the absolute concluding temperature controls the compaction ratio. The high car ignition temperature of H allows larger compaction ratios to be utilise in a H engine than in a hydrocarbon engine. On the other manus, H is hard to light in a compaction ignition or diesel engine constellation, because the temperatures needed for those qualitys of ignition be comparatively high.High Flame SpeedHydrogen has high fire velocity at stoichiometric ratios. Under these conditions, the H fire velocity is about an order of magnitude higher ( faster ) than that of gasolene. This essence that H engines can more closely approach the thermodynamically ideal engine rhythm. At cadaverous mixtures, nevertheless, the fire speed decreases significantly.High DiffusivityHydrogen has really high diffusivity. This ability to scatter in air is head greater than gasolene and is advantageous for two chief grounds. First, it facilitates the formation of a unvarying mixture of fuel and air. Second, if a H leak develops, the H disperses quickly. Therefore, insecure conditions can either be avoided or minimized.Low DensityHydrogen has really low den seness. This consequences in two jobs when used in an internal burning engine. First, a really big volume is necessary to hive away adequate H to give a vehicle an equal train scope. Second, the energy denseness of a hydrogen-air mixture, and therefore the power end product, is decrease.Fuel Delivery SystemsHydrogen fuel experience ining constitution can be broken down into three chief typesCardinal guess ( or carburetted )Port pelletDirect crackCentral and port fuel bringing administrations injection forms the fuel-air mixture during the intake shot. In the instance of cardinal injection or a carburetor, the injection is at the recess of the air intake manifold. In the instance of port injection, it is injected at the recess port. Direct cylinder injection is more technologically advance(a) and involves organizing the fuel-air mixture inside the burning cylinder after the air consumption valve has closed.Cardinal Injection or Carburetted SystemsThe simplest method of pre senting fuel to a H engine is by manner of a carburetor or cardinal injection system. This system has advantages for a H engine. First, cardinal injection does non necessitate the H supply deplume per building block area to be every bit high as for other methods. Second, cardinal injection or carburetors are used on gasolene engines, doing it easy to change over a standard gasolene engine to hydrogen or a gasoline/hydrogen engine.The disadvantage of cardinal injection is that it is more susceptible to irregular burning due to pre-ignition and back fire. The greater sum of hydrogen/air mixture within the consumption manifold compounds the effects of pre-ignition.Port Injection SystemsThe port injection fuel bringing system injects fuel instantly into the consumption manifold at to each one consumption port, instead than pulling fuel in at a cardinal point. Typically, the H is injected into the manifold after the beginning of the consumption shot. At this point conditions are a great deal less terrible and the chance for premature ignition is reduced. In port injection, the air is injected separately at the beginning of the consumption shot to thin the hot residuary gases and cool any hot musca volitanss. Since less gas ( H or air ) is in the manifold at any one clip, any pre-ignition is less terrible. The recess supply force per unit area for port injection tends to be higher than for carburetted or cardinal injection systems, but less than for draw a bead on injection systems. The ceaseless volume injection ( CVI ) system uses a mechanical cam-operated device to clip the injection of the H to each cylinder. The CVI block is shown on the far right of the exposure with four fuel lines go outing on left side of the block ( one fuel line for each cylinder ) .The electronic fuel injection ( EFI ) system meters the H to each cylinder. This system uses single electronic fuel injectors ( solenoid valves ) for each cylinder and pumped to a common fuel rail lo cated down the Centre of the consumption manifold. Whereas the CVI system uses changeless injection timing and variable star fuel rail force per unit area, the EFI system uses variable injection timing and changeless fuel rail force per unit area.Direct Injection SystemsMore sophisticated H engines use direct injection into the burning cylinder during the compaction shot. In direct injection, the consumption valve is closed when the fuel is injected, wholly avoiding premature ignition during the intake shot. Consequently the engine can non backlash into the consumption manifold. The power end product of a direct injected H engine is 20 % more than for a gasolene engine and 42 % more than a H engine utilizing a carburetor. While direct injection solves the job of pre-ignition in the consumption manifold, it does non needfully forestall pre ignition within the burning bedchamber. In add-on, due to the reduced commixture clip of the air and fuel in a direct injection engine, the air/f uel mixture can be non-homogenous. Surveies put on suggested this can take to higher dark emanations than the non-direct injection systems. Direct injection systems require a higher fuel rail force per unit area than the other.Thermal DilutionPre-ignition conditions can be curbed utilizing thermic dilution techniques such as fumes gas recirculation ( EGR ) or urine injection. As the name implies, an EGR system re-circulates a part of the fumes gases back into the consumption manifold. The debut of do the dishes gases helps to cut down the temperature of hot musca volitanss, cut downing the possibility of pre-ignition. Additionally, re-circulating fumes gases cut down the peak burning temperature, which reduces dark emanations. Typically a 25 to 30 % recirculation of fumes gas is potent in extinguishing blowback. On the other manus, the power end product of the engine is reduced when utilizing EGR. The carriage of eat up gases reduces the sum of fuel mixture that can be draw n into the burning chamber.Another technique for thermally thining the fuel mixture is the injection of piss. Injecting H2O into the H watercourse prior to blending with air has produced better consequences than shooting it into the hydrogen-air mixture within the consumption manifold. A possible job with this type of system is that H2O can acquire mixed with the oil, so care must be taken to procure that seals do non leak.Engine DesignThe most effectual agencies of commanding pre-ignition and knock is to re-design the engine for H usage, specifically the burning chamber and the chilling system. A discoid burning chamber ( with a level diver and chamber detonating device ) can be used to cut down turbulency within the chamber. The disc form helps bring forth low radial and digressive speed constituents and does non magnify recess whirl during compaction. Since unburned hydrocarbons are non a concern in H engines, a big bore-to-stroke ratio can be used with this engine. To fount the wider scope of fire velocities that occur over a greater scope of equality ratios, two glistering fireplugs are needed. The chilling system must be designed to supply unvarying flow to all locations that need chilling. Extra steps to diminish the chance of pre ignition are the usage of two midget exhaust valves as opposed to a individual big one, and the development of an effectual scavenging system, that is, a performance of displacing exhaust gas from the burning chamber with fresh air.Ignition SystemsDue to hydrogen s low ignition energy bound, lighting H is easy and gasoline ignition systems can be used. At really thin air/fuel ratios ( 1301 to 1801 ) the fire speed is reduced wellhead and the usage of a double flicker stopper system is preferred. Ignition systems that use a bluster flicker system should non be used for H engines. These systems energize the flicker each clip the Piston is at top dead Centre whether or non the Piston is on the compaction stroke or on i ts exhaust shot. For gasolene engines, waste flicker systems work good and are less costly than other systems. For H engines, the waste flickers are a beginning of pre-ignition. Spark stopper for a H engine should hold a cold evaluation and have non-platinum tips. A cold-rated stopper is one that transfers heat from the stopper tip to the cylinder caput quicker than a hot-rated flicker stopper. This means the opportunities of the flicker stopper tip lighting the air/fuel charge is reduced. Hot rated spark stoppers are designed to keep an eye on a certain sum of heat so that C sedimentations do non roll up. Since H does non hold in C, hot-rated flicker stoppers do non function a utile map. Platinum-tip flicker stopper should besides be avoided since Pt is a accelerator, doing H to oxidise with air.Crankcase VentilationCrankcase airing is even more of import for H engines than for gasolene engines. As with gasolene engines, un-burnt fuel can exude by the Piston rings and enter the crankcase. Since H has a lower energy ignition bound than gasolene, any un-burnt H come ining the crankcase has a greater opportunity of lighting. Hydrogen should be prevented from roll uping through airing. Ignition within the crankcase can be plainly a startling noise or consequence in engine fire. When H ignites within the crankcase, a sudden force per unit area rise occurs. To alleviate this force per unit area, a force per unit area alleviation valve must be installed on the valve screen. Exhaust gases can besides ooze by the Piston rings into the crankcase. Since H fumes is H2O vapor, H2O can distill in the crankcase when proper airing is non provided. The commixture of H2O into the crankcase oil reduces its lubrication ability, ensue in a higher soft touch of engine wear.EmissionsThe burning of H with O green goodss H2O as its lone merchandise2H2 + O2 = 2H2OThe burning of H with air nevertheless can besides bring forth oxides of N ( NOx ) H2 + O2 + N2 = H2O + N2 + NOxThe oxides of N are created due to the high temperatures generated within the burning chamber during burning. This high temperature causes more or less of the N in the air to unite with the O in the air. The sum of NOx formed depends onThe air/fuel ratioThe engine compaction ratioThe engine velocityThe ignition timingWhether thermic dilution is utilisedIn add-on to oxides of N, hints of C monoxide and C dioxide can be present in the fumes gas, due to ooze oil combustion in the burning chamber. Depending on the status of the engine ( combustion of oil ) and the operating scheme used ( a rich versus thin air/fuel ratio ) , a H engine can bring forth from about zero emanations ( every bit low as a few ppm ) to high NOx and important C monoxide emanations.Power End productThe theoretical maximal power end product from a H engine depends on the air/fuel ratio and fuel injection method used. As mentioned in above, the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio for H is 341. At this air/fuel ratio, H will displace 29 % of the burning chamber go forthing however 71 % for the air. As a consequence, the energy content of this mixture will be less than it would be if the fuel were gasolene ( since gasolene is a smooth, it merely occupies a really little volume of the burning chamber, and therefore allows more air to enter ) . Since both the carburetted and larboard injection methods mix the fuel and air prior to it come ining the burning chamber, these systems limit the maximal theoretical power gettable to about 85 % of that of gasolene engines. For direct injection systems, which mix the fuel with the air after the consumption valve has closed ( and therefore the burning chamber has 100 % air ) , the maximal end product of the engine can be about 15 % higher than that for gasolene engines.Therefore, depending on how the fuel is metered, the maximal end product for a H engine can be either 15 % higher or 15 % less than that of gasolene if a stoichiometric air/fuel ratio is used. Howe ver, at a stoichiometric air/fuel ratio, the burning temperature is really high and as a consequence it will organize a big sum of N oxides ( NOx ) , which is a criteria pollutant. Since one of the grounds for utilizing H is low exhaust emanations, H engines are non usually designed to run at a stoichiometric air/fuel ratio.Typically hydrogen engines are designed to utilize approximately twice every bit much air as theoretically required for complete burning. At this air/fuel ratio, the formation of NOx is reduced to near nothing. Unfortunately, this besides reduces the power end product to about half that of a as well as sized gasolene engine. To do up for the power loss, H engines are normally larger than gasolene engines, and/or are equipped with turbochargers or superchargers.Hydrogen Gas MixturesHydrogen can be used well in internal burning engines as an linear to a hydrocarbon fuel. Hydrogen is most normally assorted with high force per unit area inborn gas for this intent s ince both gases can be stored in the comparable armored combat vehicle. If H is blended with other fuels, it normally has to be stored individually and assorted in the gaseous province instantly before ignition. In general, it is impractical to utilize H in concurrence with other fuels that besides require bulky storage systems, such as propane. vapourish H can non be stored in the same vas as a liquid fuel. Hydrogen s low denseness will do it to stay on top of the liquid and non blend. Furthermore, liquid fuels are stored at comparatively low force per unit areas so that really small H could be added to the vas. Liquid H can non be stored in the same vas as other fuels. Hydrogen s low boiling point will stop dead other fuels ensuing in fuel ice . Hydrogen can be used in concurrence with compact liquid fuels such as gasolene, intoxicant or Diesel provided each are stored individually. In these applications, the fuel armored combat vehicles can be formed to suit into fresh infinite s on the vehicle. Existing vehicles of this type tend to run utilizing one fuel or the other but non both at the same clip. One advantage of this scheme is that the vehicle can go on to run if H is unavailable.Hydrogen can non be used straight in a Diesel ( or compression ignition ) engine since H s car ignition temperature is excessively high ( this is besides true of inbred gas ) . Therefore, diesel engines must be outfitted with spark stoppers or utilize a little sum of Diesel fuel to light the gas ( known as take flight ignition ) . Although pilot ignition techniques have been true for usage with natural gas, no 1 is presently making this with H.One commercially available gas mixture known as Hythane contains 20 % H and 80 % natural gas. At this ratio, no alterations are required to a natural gas engine, and surveies have shown that emanations are reduced by more than 20 % . Mixtures of more than 20 % H with natural gas can cut down emanations further but some engine alterati ons are required. Thin operation of any internal burning engine is advantageous in footings of oxides of nitrogen emanations and fuel economic system.For hydrocarbon engines, thin operation besides leads to take down emanations of C monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons. As more O is available than required to burn the fuel, the especial(a) O oxidizes more C monoxide into C dioxide, a less harmful emanation. The extra O besides helps to finish the burning, diminishing the sum of unburned hydrocarbons. As with H, the drawback of thin operation with hydrocarbon fuels is a decreased power end product. Thin operation of hydrocarbon engines has extra drawbacks. Thin mixtures are difficult to light, despite the mixture being above the LFL of the fuel. This consequence in dud, which increases unburned hydrocarbon emanations, reduces public presentation and wastes fuel. Another disadvantage is the decreased transition efficiency of 3-way catalytic convertors, ensuing in more harmful emanation s.To some extent, blending H with other hydrocarbon fuels reduces all of these drawbacks. Hydrogen s low ignition energy bound and high firing velocity makes the hydrogen/hydrocarbon mixture easier to light, cut downing dud and thereby bettering emanations, public presentation and fuel economic system. Sing power end product, H augments the mixture s energy denseness at thin mixtures by change magnitude the hydrogen-to-carbon ratio, and thereby improves torsion at wide-open throttle conditions.Current StatusA few car makers have been making some work in the development of hydrogen-powered vehicles ( Ford has late announced that they have developed a production ready hydrogen-powered vehicle utilizing an ICE and BMW has completed a universe circuit exposing a twelve or so hydrogen-powered 750i vehicles ) . However, it is non likely that any hydrogen-powered vehicles will be available to the populace until there is an equal re-fuelling substructure and trained technicians to mend and keep these vehicles. Like current gasoline-powered vehicles, the design of each H powered vehicle will most likely vary from maker to maker and theoretical answer for to pattern.One theoretical account may be simple in design and operation, for illustration, a thin combustion fuel metering scheme utilizing no emanation control systems such as EGR, catalytic convertor, vanish fuel case shot, etc. Another theoretical account may be really sophisticated in design and operation, for illustration, utilizing an EGR fuel metering scheme with a catalytic convertor, multiple flicker stoppers, etc. Until such clip that a H substructure exists, hydrogen/natural gas fuel blends provide a logical passage to to the full hydrogen-powered vehicles. These vehicles can run on either fuel, depending on handiness